Geopolitics of Electricity: Grids, Space and (political) Power

 We are very grateful to Dr Susanne Nies for her detailed comments and valuable advice, and to Michael Paul for his expert opinion. As the authors, we are responsible for any errors in this paper. We thank Patricia Wild, Friedemann Schmidt and Julian Grinschgl for their help preparing the manuscript. We gratefully acknowledge the work of Paul Bochtler, Rebecca Majewski, Maximiliane Schneider, Corinna Templin (SWP Data and Statistics Team), and Daniel Kettner (Communications Department) for their detailed research as well as for creating and designing the maps. Our thanks also go to Michael Alfs for editing the original German draft and to Miranda Robbins for editing the English manuscript.

 International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), ed., A New World: The Geopolitics of the Energy Transformation (Abu Dhabi, 2019), https://www.irena.org/publications/2019/Jan/A-New-World-The-Geopolitics-of-the-Energy-Transformation.

 Susanne Nies, “Security of Supply and Risk Preparedness: A New Focus on Electricity”, in The European Energy Transition: An Agenda for the Twenties, ed. Susanne Nies, 2nd ed. (Deventer: Claeys & Casteels, 2020), 53–78.

 BloombergNEF, New Energy Outlook 2020, Executive Summary (October 2020), 9.

 Margarita M. Balmaceda, Russian Energy Chains: The Remak­ing of Technopolitics from Siberia to Ukraine to the European Union (New York: Columbia University Press, 2021); Per Högselius, Energy and Geopolitics (London and New York: Routledge, 2019); Per Högselius, Red Gas: Russia and the Origins of European Energy Dependence (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).

 Matthias Schulze and Daniel Voelsen, “Digital Spheres of Influence”, in Strategic Rivalry between United States and China, SWP Research Paper 1/2020, ed. Barbara Lippert and Volker Perthes (Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, April 2020), 32–36, https://www.swp-berlin.org/publikation/ strategic-rivalry-between-united-states-and-china#hd-d18124e1781.

 Ibid., 32.

 Paul Joscha Kohlenberg and Nadine Godehardt, China’s Global Connectivity Politics: On Confidently Dealing with Chinese Initiatives, SWP Comment 18/2018 (Berlin: Stiftung Wissen­schaft und Politik, April 2018), https://www.swp-berlin.org/ publications/products/comments/2018C17_khb_gdh.pdf.

 Gavin Bridge, Stefan Bouzarovski, Michael Bradshaw and Nick Eyre, “Geographies of Energy Transition: Space, Place and the Low-Carbon Economy”, Energy Policy 53 (2013): 331–40 (336).

 Selina Ho, “Infrastructure and Chinese Power”, Inter­national Affairs 96, no. 6 (2020): 1461–85 (1468).

 Ibid., 1466, 1469.

 Also raised by Ho, ibid., 1461.

 Daniel Scholten and Rick Bosman, “The Geopolitics of Renewables: Exploring the Political Implications of Renew­able Energy Systems”, Technological Forecasting & Social Change 103 (2016): 273–83.

 Ho, “Infrastructure and Chinese Power” (see note 9), 1471.

 Although there are different standards worldwide and no uniform definition of transmission grid connections, interconnectors of over 220 kV are common both within the EU and in the rest of the Euro-Asian area, with a few excep­tions.

 Susanne Nies, At the Speed of Light? Electricity Interconnections for Europe, Gouvernance Européenne et Géopolitique de l’Énergie, vol. 8 (Paris: Institut Français des Relations Internationales [IFRI], 2010).

 Scholten and Bosman, “The Geopolitics of Renewables” (see note 12), 279.

 See Nies, “Security of Supply” (see note 2).

 Günter Drewnitzky, “Europa am Rande eines Black Friday”, Energy & Management/Powernews.org (online ed.), 11 January 2021, https://www.energie-und-management.de/ nachrichten/networks/detail/europa-am-rande-eines-black-friday-140715.

 Peter Koller, “Wieder Systemtrennung im europäischen Stromnetz”, Energy & Management/Powernews.org (online ed.), 26 July 2021, https://www.energie-und-management.de/ nachrichten/netze/detail/wieder-systemtrennung-im-europaeischen-stromnetz-144002.

 International Energy Agency (IEA), Power Systems in Transition: Challenges and Opportunities ahead for Electricity Security (Vienna, 2020).

 Bridge et al., “Geographies of Energy Transition” (see note 8).

 IEA, Net Zero by 2050: A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector (Vienna, 2021), 117.

 Ibid., 118.

 Ibid., 117.

 See Gerhard Steiger, Neue Normungsstrategie “China Stan­dards 2035” (Frankfurt: Verband Deutscher Maschinen und Anlagenbau e.V. [VDMA], Abteilung Normung, 30 July 2020), http://normung.vdma.org/viewer/-/v2article/render/50001829; see also Sibylle Gabler, Internationale Normung und Standar­disierung im Bereich neuer Technologien als Teil des geopolitischen Wettbewerbs (Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Normung, 7 June 2021), https://www.bundestag.de/resource/blob/846438/ 5165a1089417d56629aef3d539844d12/Praesentation-Sibylle-Gabler-data.pdf.

 Tim Nicholas Rühlig, Chinas Geopolitik technischer Stan­dards, background paper (Berlin: Auswärtiger Ausschuss des Deutschen Bundestages, 7 June 2021), https://www. bundestag.de/resource/blob/845192/722efed99b71b971bc62cdd43579dd5b/Stellungnahme-Dr-Tim-Nicholas-Ruehlig-data. pdf. The International Electrotechnical Commission sets international standards in electrics and electrical engineer­ing, partly in cooperation with the International Organi­zation for Standardization (ISO).

 This challenge was discussed in detail at a roundtable on the “New US-EU Energy Security Agenda” on June 3, 2021. The roundtable was organised by the Global Center on Energy Policy, SIPA, Columbia University and Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik.

 Of course, centres and peripheries also exist at the national level. However, the focus of this study is on inter­national relations.

 Bowen Yan and Jianxi Luo, “Multicores-Periphery Struc­ture in Networks”, Network Science 7, no. 1 (2019): 70–87, https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1605/1605.03286.pdf; Stephen P. Borgatti and Martin G. Everett, “Models of Core/ Periphery Structures”, Social Networks 21 (1999): 375–95; Paul Krugman, “Increasing Returns and Economic Geography”, Journal of Political Economy 99, no. 3 (1991): 483–99.

 Vincent Lagendijk, Electrifying Europe: The Power of Europe in the Construction of Electricity Networks (Amsterdam, 2008) and Nies, “Security of Supply” (see note 2).

 Union for the Coordination of Production and Trans­mission of Electricity (UCPTE)/Union for the Co-ordination of Transmission of Electricity (UCTE), The 50 Year Success Story: Evolution of a European Interconnected Grid (Brussels, 2009), 8.

 Lagendijk, Electrifying Europe (see note 30), 106–07.

 Ibid., 158.

 UCPTE/UCTE, The 50 Year Success Story (see note 31), 9.

 Ibid., 15.

 Directive 96/92/EC of the European Parliament and of the Coun­cil of 19 December 1996 Concerning Common Rules for the Internal Market in Electricity, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:31996L0092&from=DE.

 Nies, “Security of Supply” (see note 2).

 Ibid.

 For the different phases and steps of electricity market integration, see Leonardo Meuus, The Evolution of Electricity Markets in Europe (Cheltenham and Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar, 2020).

 On the Energy Union, which was also established in 2015 in response to the annexation of Crimea, see European Union, Energy Union (website), https://ec.europa.eu/info/ energy-climate-change-environment/overall-targets/2030-targets/energy-union_de.

 German Federal Network Agency, “Rat der europäischen Energieregulierungsbehörden” (webpage), https://www.bundes netzagentur.de/DE/Allgemeines/DieBundesnetzagentur/ Internationales/Energie/CEER/start.html.

 European Parliament, ed., “Briefing No 43: Energy Policy and the Enlargement of the European Union” (Brussels, 10 June 1999), https://www.europarl.europa.eu/enlargement/ briefings/43a2_en.htm.

 Lidia Puka and Kacper Szulecki, “The Politics and Eco­nomics of Cross-border Electricity Infrastructure: A Frame­work for Analysis”, Energy Research & Social Science 4 (2014): 124–34.

 The Commission’s legislative proposal “Clean Energy for All Europeans” covered energy efficiency, renewable elec­tricity generation, electricity market development, security of supply and governance for the Energy Union. For more infor­mation and an overview of the adopted directives and legis­lation, see European Commission, Clean Energy for All Europeans Package (webpage), https://ec.europa.eu/energy/ en/topics/energy-strategy-and-energy-union/clean-energy-all-europeans (accessed 3 June 2021).

 See Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators (ACER), ed., ACER Report on the Result of Monitoring the Margin Available for Cross-Zonal Electricity Trade in the EU in the First Semester of 2020 (Ljubljana, 18 December 2020).

 European Commission, Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/1485 of 2 August 2017 Establishing a Guideline on Electricity Transmission System Operation (Brussels, 2 August 2017), https:// eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX %3A32017R1485.

 ENTSO-E, ed., Enhanced TSO Regional Coordination for Europe: Act Locally, Coordinate Regionally, Think European (Brus­sels, November 2019), https://eepublicdownloads.entsoe.eu/ clean-documents/Publications/Position%20papers%20and %20reports/entsoe_regional%20coordination_Europe_ 191031.pdf.

 “Day-ahead” includes electricity trading for the follow­ing day; “intraday trading” means short-term trading of elec­tricity in minute or hourly blocks on the same day.

 Alexander Kaiser, Christian Todem, Valentin Wiedner and Hannes Wornig, Europäische Netzwerkcodes – Bidding Zone Review: Auswirkungen von Änderungen der Marktgebiete in Europa am Beispiel Österreich-Deutschland, 14. Symposium Energie­innovation, Graz, 10–12 February 2016, https://www. tugraz.at/fileadmin/user_upload/Events/Eninnov2016/files/lf/ Session_D3/LF_Kaiser.pdf.

 German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy, “Die Einheitlichkeit der deutschen Stromgebotszone bleibt gewahrt: Bundeskabinett billigt Änderung der Strom­netzzugangsverordnung”, press release, 22 November 2017, https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/DE/Pressemitteilungen/2017/20171122-einheitlichkeit-der-deutschen-stromgebotszone-bleibt-gewahrt.html.

 Ibid.

 Jesper Starn, Brian Parkin, and Irina Vilcu, “The Day Europe’s Power Grid Came Close to a Massive Blackout”, Bloomberg (online ed.), 27 January 2021, https://www. bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-01-27/green-shift-brings-blackout-risk-to-world-s-biggest-power-grid.

 Irene Mayer-Kilani, “Netzbetreiber warnen vor drohenden Stromausfällen”, energate messenger, 12 January 2021, https://www.energate-messenger.de/news/208781.

 Marc-Oliver Bettzüge, “Systemtrennung als Warnschuss? Aktuelle Aspekte der elektrischen Versorgungssicherheit”, in Redundanzen, Resilienzen und Nachhaltigkeit: Energie für die 20er Jahre, Schriftenreihe des Kuratoriums, vol. 14 (Berlin: Forum für Zukunftsenergien, May 2021), 26–35 (28–29), http:// zukunftsenergien.de/fileadmin/user_upload/zukunftsenergien/Dokumente/FfZ_Schriftenreihe2021_Bettzuege.pdf.

 Ibid., 32–33.

 Paul van Son and Thomas Isenburg, Emission Free Energy from the Deserts: How a “Crazy Desertec Idea” Has Become Reality in North Africa and the Middle East (The Hague: Smart Book Publishers, 2019).

 Dii, 2050 Desert Power: Perspectives on a Sustainable Power System for EUMENA (Munich, June 2012); Dii, Desert Power: Getting Started; The Manual for Renewable Electricity in MENA. Full Report (Munich, June 2013).

 EU Neighbours, MED-EMIP: Energy Cooperation, https:// www.euneighbours.eu/en/south/stay-informed/projects/med-emip-energy-cooperation.

 Johan Lilliestam, Saskia Ellenbeck, Charikleia Karakosta and Natàlia Caldés, “Understanding the Absence of Renew­able Electricity Imports to the European Union”, International Journal of Energy Sector Management 10, no. 3 (2016): 291–311.

 Gonzalo Escribano, “The Geopolitics of Renewable and Electricity Cooperation between Morocco and Spain”, Mediter­ranean Politics 24, no. 5 (2019): 674–81.

 Ibid., 677.

 Isabelle Werenfels and Kirsten Westphal, Solar Power from North Africa: Frameworks and Prospects, SWP Research Paper 3/2010 (Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, May 2010), https://www.swp-berlin.org/publikation/solar-power-from-north-africa.

 Ilias Tsagas, “Spain’s Third Interconnection with Morocco Could Be Europe’s Chance for African PV – or a Boost for Coal”, pv magazine (online ed.), 20 February 2019, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2019/02/20/spains-third-interconnection-with-morocco-could-be-europes-chance-for-african-pv-or-a-boost-for-coal/.

 Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia (CNMC), Informes y circulares, https://www.cnmc.es/ambitos-de-actuacion/energia/informes-circulares.

 Med-TSO, Deliverable 2.1. 2: Detailed Project Description; 01‑MAPT Morocco-Portugal (EC DEVCO – Grant Contract: ENPI/2014/347-006, 2014), https://www.med-tso.com/ publications/pub3/01_MAPT_Detailed_Project_Description. pdf; Ahmed Eljechtimi, “Portugal, Morocco to Invite Bids for Power Link after Studies in 2019”, Reuters (online ed.), 19 November 2018, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-morocco-portugal-energy/portugal-morocco-to-invite-bids-for-power-link-after-studies-in-2019-idUSKCN1NO1SD?edition-redirect=uk.

 “Gibraltar Considers Power Link with Morocco – Spanish Media”, The North Africa Post (online ed.), 24 July 2020, https://northafricapost.com/42645-gibraltar-considers-power-link-with-morocco-spanish-media.html.

 ENTSO-E, “Project 29 – Italy-Tunisia” (Brussels, 2018), https://tyndp.entsoe.eu/tyndp2018/projects/projects/29; Eljechtimi, “Portugal, Morocco to Invite Bids” (see note 65).

 ENTSO-E, “Project 283 – TuNur” (Brussels, 2018), https://tyndp.entsoe.eu/tyndp2018/projects/projects/283; TuNur, “Export Projects” (webpage), https://www.tunur.tn/ project/export-projects/.

 Gabriel Mitchell, Supercharged: The EuroAsia Interconnector and Israel’s Pursuit of Energy Interdependence (Ramat Gan: The Israeli Institute for Regional Foreign Policies [MITVIM], February 2021).

 Energy Community, “Who We Are” (webpage), https:// www.energy-community.org/aboutus/whoweare.html.

 EuroAfrica Interconnector (website), https://www. euroafrica-interconnector.com/.

 EuroAsia Interconnector (website), https://euroasia-inter connector.com/; ENTSO-E, Project 219 – EuroAsia Interconnector (Brussels, 2018), https://tyndp.entsoe.eu/tyndp2018/projects/projects/219.

 Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Interior, Press and Infor­mation Office, “Joint Statement by the Ministers of Energy of Cyprus, Israel and Greece on the Signing of the MoU on Cooperation in Relation to the EuroAsia Interconnector Project”, press release, 8 March 2021, https://www.pio.gov. cy/en/press-releases-article.html?id=18879#flat.

 Mitchell, Supercharged (see note 69).

 See chapter “The Drivers of Electricity Interconnection” (p. 10).

 Igor Todorović, “EUR 400 Million Loan for Attica-Crete Interconnection Secured”, Balkan Green Energy News, 10 July 2020, https://balkangreenenergynews.com/eur-400-million-loan-for-attica-crete-interconnection-secured/.

 See Michaël Tanchum, Europe-Africa Connectivity Outlook 2021: Post-Covid-19 Challenges and Strategic Opportunities, IAI Papers 21/20 (Rome: Istituto Affari Internazionali [IAI], May 2021); Michaël Tanchum, Europe-Mediterranean-Africa Commer­cial Connectivity: Geopolitical Opportunities and Challenges, KAS Mediterranean Dialogue Series, no. 31 (Tunis: Konrad-Ade­nauer-Stiftung, November 2020), https://www.kas.de/ documents/282499/282548/Europe-Mediterranean-Africa+MED+Dialogue+31.pdf.

 Maria Pastukhova, Jacopo Pepe and Kirsten Westphal, Beyond the Green Deal: Upgrading the EU’s Energy Diplomacy for a New Era, SWP Comment 65/2020 (Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, June 2020), https://www.swp-berlin.org/ publikation/beyond-the-green-deal-upgrading-the-eus-energy-diplomacy-for-a-new-era.

 This section is based, among other things, on five inter­views conducted by Kirsten Westphal between December 2020 and May 2021 with current and former representatives of the EU Commission, the EEAS and the U.S. Special thanks are due to Christian Cleutinx for his rich insight and to the other interviewees, who wished to remain anonymous.

 European Commission, EU-Russia Energy Dialogue (webpage), https://ec.europa.eu/energy/topics/international-cooperation/key-partner-countries-and-regions/russia/eu-russia-energy-dialogue_en.

 UCTE, “Feasibility Study: Synchronous Interconnection of the Power Systems of IPS/UPS with UCTE”, UCTE Annual Report 2004, 18–21, https://eepublicdownloads.entsoe.eu/ clean-documents/pre2015/publications/ce/report_2004_6.pdf.

 M. Oksanen, R. Karjalainen, S. Viljainen and D. Kule­shov, “Electricity Markets in Russia, the US, and Europe”, Energy Market, 2009: Sixth International Conference on the Euro­pean Energy Market, 17 May 2009, https://simsee.org/simsee/ biblioteca/ElectricityMarketsInRussiaUSandEU.pdf; Rinat Abdurafikov, Russian Electricity Market: Current State and Per­spectives, VTT Research Working Paper 121 (Espoo et al., June 2009), https://www.vttresearch.com/sites/default/files/pdf/ workingpapers/2009/W121.pdf.

 Kirsten Westphal owes this information to long interviews with former EU officials. See also Matthias Luther, “The Feasibility of Synchronous Interconnection between IPS/UPS and UCTE”, PowerPoint presentation, Regional Electricity System and Market towards the Internal Elec­tricity Market (RESM) (Bucharest, 26 October 2007); UCTE/IPSUPS, Feasibility Study: Synchronous Interconnection of the Power Systems of IPS/UPS with UCTE (2008).

 See Kai-Olaf Lang, Auf dem Weg zu mehr Resilienz: Die bal­tischen Staaten zwischen Verwundbarkeit und Bündnissolidarität, SWP-Studie 3/2020 (Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Poli­tik, February 2020); Emmet Tuohy, Anna Bulakh and Yuri Tsarik, Desynch or Sink. A Political Analysis of Baltic Electricity Desynchronisation (Tallinn: International Centre for Defence and Security [ICDS], May 2017), https://icds.ee/wp-content/ uploads/2017/ICDS_Analysis_Desynch_or_Sink_Tuohy-Bulakh-Tsarik_May_2017.PDF.

 Joanna Hyndle-Hussein, EU Support for Synchronising the Baltic States’ Power Grids (Warsaw: Centre for Eastern Studies [OSW], 30 January 2019), https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/ publikacje/analyses/2019-01-30/eu-support-synchronising-baltic-states-power-grids.

 European Commission, Baltic Energy Market Interconnection Plan (webpage, last update 9 October 2020), https://ec.europa. eu/energy/topics/infrastructure/high-level-groups/baltic-energy-market-interconnection-plan_en.

 Janno Riispapp, “Russia Could Charge Millions for Main­taining Frequency”, Postimees, 27 December 2018, https:// news.postimees.ee/6488131/russia-could-charge-millions-for-maintaining-frequency.

 ENTSO-E, Project 123 – LitPol Link Stage 2 (Brussels, 2016), https://eepublicdownloads.entsoe.eu/clean-documents/tyndp-documents/TYNDP%202016/projects/P0123.pdf.

 ENTSO-E, Focus on the Nordic and Baltic Sea, Insight Reports (Brussels, 2016), https://tyndp.entsoe.eu/2016/insight-reports/ nordic-baltic-sea/.

 Lithuanian Electricity Transmission System Operator (Litgrid), “Synchronisation” (webpage), https://www.litgrid.eu/ index.php/synchronisation/synchronisation/31363.

 European Commission, “Energy Security: The Synchro­nisation of the Baltic States’ Electricity Networks; European Solidarity in Action”, press release, Brussels, 20 June 2019, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_19_3337.

 European Commission, Political Roadmap on Implementing the Synchronisation of the Baltic States’ Electricity Networks with the Continental European Network via Poland (Brussels, 20 June 2019), https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/default/files/ 20190620_signed_political_roadmap.pdf.

 “Baltic Energy Systems: Synchronisation by 2025”, CORDIS EU Research Results, 5 September 2018, https:// cordis.europa.eu/article/id/123813-baltic-energy-systems-synchronisation-by-2025.

 Anastasia Lyrchikova, “Russia Launches Plant to Reduce Kaliningrad’s Reliance on EU Grid”, Reuters (online ed.), 6 March 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-power-plants-idUSKCN1QN1KR.

 “Lithuania and Poland Tests Emergency Support on Electricity Interconnection”, 14 December 2021, https://www.tdworld.com/overhead-transmission/article/21183683/lithuania-and-poland-tests-emergency-support-on-electricity-interconnection.

 See in more detail: Lukas Feldhaus, Kirsten Westphal and Georg Zachmann, Connecting Ukraine to Europe’s Electricity Grid, SWP Comments 57 (Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, November 2021).

 European Union, European Atomic Energy Community and Government of Ukraine, Memorandum of Understanding on a Strategic Energy Partnership between the European Union together with the European Atomic Energy Community and Ukraine (Brus­sels, 24 November 2016), https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ ener/files/documents/mou_strategic_energy_partnership_en. pdf.

 European Commission, ed., Electricity Interconnections with Neighbouring Countries: Second Report of the Commission Expert Group on Electricity Interconnection Targets (Brussels, 20 June 2019), 13, https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/ documents/2nd_report_ic_with_neighbouring_countries b5.pdf.

 “New Power Line to Be Built between Ukraine and Slovakia”, UNIAN, 5 October 2018, https://www.unian.info/ economics/10288323-new-power-line-to-be-built-between-ukraine-and-slovakia.html.

 World Bank, ed., Ukraine: Facilitating Power System Inte­gration with Europe (P171980). Project Information Document (PID) (Washington, D.C., 4 February 2020), https://ewsdata.rights indevelopment.org/files/documents/80/WB-P171980_ lDLAAYT.pdf.

 “Integration into ENTSO-E: Key Results over Two Years”, presentation of Ukrenergo, 30 May 2019, https://de.slide share.net/Ukrenergo/integration-into-entsoe-key-results-over-two-years?from_action=save.

 See in detail Georg Zachmann and Lukas Feldhaus, Synchronising Ukraine’s and Europe’s Electricity Grids, Low Carbon Ukraine Policy Note (Berlin: Berlin Economics, May 2021), https://www.lowcarbonukraine.com/wp-content/uploads/ Synchronising-Ukraine%C2%B4s-and-Europe%C2%B4s-electricity-grids.pdf.

 Vladimir Soldatkin, “Putin Says Crimea Now Free of Reliance on Kiev for Its Power”, Reuters (online ed.), 11 May 2016, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-crimea-power-idUSKCN0Y21K5.

 “Moldavskaya GRES Increased Electricity Production by 11% in First Quarter”, Infotag, 2 June 2021, http://www. infotag.md/economics-en/292336/.

 Iulian Ernst, “Gazprom Makes New Attempt to Force Moldova to Pay Breakaway Transnistria’s Gas Bill”, bne IntelliNews, 19 May 2021, https://intellinews.com/gazprom-makes-new-attempt-to-force-moldova-to-pay-breakaway-transnistria-s-gas-bill-210875/?source=moldovabne.

 Maria Pastukhova and Kirsten Westphal, A Common Energy Market in the Eurasian Economic Union, SWP Comment 9/2016 (Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, February 2016, https://www.swp-berlin.org/publikation/a-common-energy-market-in-the-eurasian-economic-union; Zachmann and Feldhaus, Synchronising Ukraine’s and Europe’s Electricity Grids (see note 102), 5.

 See chapter “The European Union: From Cooperation to Electricity Market Integration” (p. 14).

 Interviews with former and current EU officials and US experts. See also “Exploring Ukraine’s Long-term Energy Security on the Path towards Decarbonisation”, webinar, Centre for European Policy Studies (CEPS), Brussels, 5 May 2021, https://www.ceps.eu/ceps-events/ukraine-long-term-energy-security/.

 “NordLink”, Tennet, https://www.tennet.eu/our-grid/ international-connections/nordlink/.

 See Indra Øverland, Ellen Scholl, Kirsten Westphal and Katja Yafimava, Energy Security and the OSCE: The Case for Energy Risk Mitigation and Connectivity, SWP Comment 26/2016 (Ber­lin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, May 2016), https:// www.swp-berlin.org/publikation/energy-security-and-the-osce; Maria Pastukhova and Kirsten Westphal, Eurasian Eco­nomic Union Integrates Energy Markets – EU Stands Aside, SWP Comment 5/2018 (Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, January 2018), https://www.swp-berlin.org/publikation/ eurasian-economic-union-integrates-energy-markets-eu-stands-aside; Zachmann and Feldhaus, Synchronising Ukraine’s and Europe’s Electricity Grids (see note 102), 5.

 See U.S. Department of State, “Joint Statement of the United States and Germany on Support for Ukraine, Euro­pean Energy Security, and our Climate Goals”, media note (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Spokesperson, 21 July 2021), https://www. state.gov/joint-statement-of-the-united-states-and-germany-on-support-for-ukraine-european-energy-security-and-our-climate-goals/.

 “China’s State Grid Seals Acquisition of Stake in Greek Power Grid”, Reuters (online ed.), 20 June 2017, https://www. reuters.com/article/greece-stategrid-powergrid-idAFL8N1JH32G.

 “State Grid Buys Stake in Portugal REN”, China Daily (online ed.), 3 February 2012, https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/ bizchina/2012-02/03/content_14534924.htm.

 CDP Group, “CDP: 40.9% Stake in CDP Reti Transferred to State Grid and Italian Institutional Investors”, press release, Rome, 27 November 2014, https://www.cdp.it/sito internet/page/en/cdp_409_stake_in_cdp_reti_transferred_to_ state_grid_and_italian_institutional_investors?contentId= CSA11238.

 Anatole Boute, Energy Security along the New Silk Road: Energy Law and Geopolitics in Central Asia (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 89–91.

 Coordinating Dispatch Center Energia, “The Intercon­nected Power Grid of Central Asia: Regional Trade Outlooks”, presentation at the 27th CAREC-ESCC Meeting, Ashgabat, 13–14 March 2018; Coordinating Dispatch Center Energia, “Current Status and Development Prospects of the Central Asian Unified Energy System”, presentation at the 27th CAREC-ESCC Meeting, Tashkent, 10 April 2019, https:// www.carecprogram.org/uploads/4.-Dispatch-Center_Mr-Shamsiev.pdf.

 Yuri N. Rudenko, “Electric Power Development in the USSR”, presentation at the First Energy Conference Israel – Former USSR, 13–15 May 1991, 3, https://inis.iaea.org/ collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/25/011/25011834.pdf.

 Ibid.

 Energia, “The Interconnected Power Grid of Central Asia” (see note 116), 9. To stabilise the grid and improve IPS/UPS parallel operation, a second intra-Kazakh 500-kV transmission line was built between the Ekibastuz sub­station and Shu between 2004 and 2010.

 CIS Electric Power Council (website), http://energo-cis.ru/ enmain/.

 Pastukhova and Westphal, Eurasian Economic Union Integrates Energy Markets (see note 110); Zachmann and Feld­haus, Synchronising Ukraine’s and Europe’s Electricity Grids (see note 102), 5.

 Oleg Marchenko et al., “Rossiya v evraziiskoi elektro­energiticheskoi integrazii” [Russia in Eurasia’s Electricity Integration], Mirovaya Ekonomika I Mezhdunarodn’e otnosheniya [World Economy and International Relations] 62, no. 6 (2018): 21, 25, https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=35101362; see also Lev Belyaev, Lyudmila Chudinova and Sergei Podko­valnikov, “Russia’s Electric Power Reintegration with Central Asia and Caucasus and Entering South Asia and Middle East Electricity Markets”, E3S Web of Conferences 209, no. 04001 (2020), https://www.e3s-conferences.org/articles/e3sconf/ pdf/2020/69/e3sconf_energy-212020_04001.pdf.

 “A Closer Look at the Rapidly-growing Power Industry in Uzbekistan”, NS Energy (online ed.), 30 July 2019, https:// www.nsenergybusiness.com/features/power-industry-uzbekistan/.

 IEA, Uzbekistan – Countries & Regions (webpage), https:// www.iea.org/countries/Uzbekistan.

 Andrea Schmitz, Uzbekistan’s Transformation: Strategies and Perspectives, SWP Research Paper 12/2020 (Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik, September 2020), https://www.swp-berlin.org/publikation/uzbekistans-transformation.

 Uwe Strohbach, “Foreign companies stir up Uzbek power sector”, Germany Trade & Invest (GTAI), 4 June 2020, https://www.gtai.de/gtai-de/trade/branchen/branchen bericht/usbekistan/auslaendische-unternehmen-wirbeln-usbekischen-stromsektor-auf–256558.

 Kamila Aliyeva, “Kyrgyzstan to Resume Power Exports to Uzbekistan despite Accident at Bishkek TPP”, Azernews (online ed.), 30 January 2018, https://www.azernews.az/ region/126287.html.

 Asian Development Bank (ADB), ed., TAJ: Reconnection to Central Asian Power System Project, Project no. 52122-001, October 2018, 6, https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/ project-documents/52122/52122-001-rp-en.pdf; “Tajikistan Resumes Power Exports to Uzbekistan”, The Economist (online ed.), 27 April 2018, http://country.eiu.com/article.aspx? articleid=1286668312&Country=Tajikistan&topic=Economy &subtopic=Forecast&subsubtopic=Economic+growth.

 “Uzbekistan to Import Turkmen Electricity”, BT Business Turkmenistan (online ed.), 3 December 2019, https://business. com.tm/post/4810/UsbekistanUsbekistanUsbekistan-to-import-turkmen-electricity.

 World Bank, Study on Strengthening the Central Asia Power System (CAPS), Central Asia Energy-Water Development Pro­gram, Program Brief no. 1 (Washington, D.C., November 2015), http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/ 866191467998204221/pdf/101742-BRI-CAPS-PB-Box393265B-PUBLIC.pdf.

 Boute, Energy Security (see note 115).

 “Uzbekistan Supports CASA-1000 Project – Kamilov”, The Tashkent Times (online ed.), 29 November 2018, https:// tashkenttimes.uz/world/3235-UsbekistanUsbekistanUsbeki stan-supports-casa-1000-project-kamilov.

 Mir Haidar Shah Omid, “ADB Pledges $70m to Fund Surkhan-Pul-e-Khumri Power Line”, Tolo News, 16 February 2018, https://tolonews.com/business/adb-pledges-70m-fund-surkhan-pul-e-khumri-power-line.

 ADB, “Power Interconnection Project to Strengthen Power Trade between Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Pakistan”, press release, 28 February 2018, https://www.adb.org/news/ power-interconnection-project-strengthen-power-trade-between-afghanistan-turkmenistan-pakistan.

 European Commission, “European Union Approves First Actions for Central Asia in Line with the European Green Deal Priorities”, press release, Brussels, 19 May 2020, https://ec.europa.eu/international-partnerships/news/ european-union-approves-first-actions-central-asia-line-european-green-deal-priorities_en.

 Edmund Downie, China’s Vision for a Global Grid: The Politics of Global Energy Interconnection, Reconnecting Asia (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies [CSIS], 13 February 2019), https://reconnectingasia. csis.org/analysis/entries/global-energy-interconnection/.

 Mircea Ardelean and Philip Minnebo, A China-EU Elec­tricity Transmission Link: Assessment of Potential Connecting Coun­tries and Routes (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the Euro­pean Union, 2017), 76–78, https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/ publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/ china-eu-electricity-transmission-link-assessment-potential-connecting-countries-and-routes.

 Global Energy Interconnection Development and Co­operation Organization (GEIDCO), Connotation of Global Energy Interconnection (Beijing, October 2016), 15; ADB, ed., Tajikistan: Power Sector Development Master Plan Final Report, ADB Grant No: 0213-TAJ (Mandaluyong City, Philippines, February 2017), 19, 27, https://mewr.tj/wp-content/uploads/files/ Power_Sector_Master_Plan-Vol1.pdf.

 “Kyrgyzstan Hails ‘Historic’ China-financed Power Line”, chinapower.com.cn, 31 August 2015, http://en. chinapower.com.cn/2015/08/31/content_2956.html.

 “China to Restore Power Line between Uzbekistan and Tajikistan for $25 Million”, New Europe (online ed.), 24 Sep­tember 2020, https://www.neweurope.eu/article/china-to-restore-power-line-between-Uzbekistan-and-tajikistan-for-25-million/.

 IEA, ed., Chinese Companies Energy Activities in Emerging Asia (Paris, April 2019), 9, https://www.iea.org/reports/chinese-companies-energy-activities-in-emerging-asia.

 Farkhod Aminjonov et al, “BRI in Central Asia: Energy Connectivity Projects”, Central Asia Regional Data Review 22 (2019): 1–14, http://osce-academy.net/upload/file/22_BRI_ Energy.pdf.

 Boute, Energy Security (see note 115), 95.

 Robert Espey, “Iran Continues Power Plant Capacity Expansion”, GTAI, 26 October 2020, https://www.gtai.de/gtai-de/trade/branchen/branchenbericht/iran/iran-setzt-ausbau-der-kraftwerkskapazitaeten-fort-569496.

 Simon Watkins, “Iran Is Building a Massive Energy Network to Boost Its Geopolitical Influence”, Oilprice.com, 8 October 2020, https://oilprice.com/Energy/Energy-General/ Iran-Is-Building-A-Massive-Energy-Network-To-Boost-Its-Geo political-Influence.html.

 “Power Transmission Line Connects Turkmenistan, Iran”, New Europe (online ed.), 29 August 2004, https://www. neweurope.eu/article/power-transmission-line-connects-turkmenistan-iran/.

 “Energy Minister: Iran, Turkmenistan to Launch 2nd Power Line Soon”, Energy Central News (online ed.), 30 March 2018, https://energycentral.com/news/energy-minister-iran-turkmenistan-launch-2nd-power-line-soon-0.

 Pastukhova and Westphal, Eurasian Economic Union Integrates Energy Markets (see note 110).

 Ibid.

 ENTSO-E, “ENTSO-E Member Companies” (webpage), https://www.entsoe.eu/about/inside-entsoe/members/.

 GSE, Cooperation with the Energy Community (webpage), http://www.gse.com.ge/about-us/international-affairs/ Cooperation-with-ENTSO-E.

 Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW), “Zuverlässige Stromversorgung für Armenien”, press release, Frankfurt, 9 December 2014, https://www.kfw.de/KfW-Konzern/News room/Aktuelles/Pressemitteilungen-Details_249920.html.

 Abdul Kerimkhanov, “Azerbaijan Lays New Electric Transmission Lines to Georgia, Iran”, Azernews (online ed.), 10 October 2019, https://www.azernews.az/business/157074.html.

 GSE, International Affairs, Cross-Border Connections, http://www.gse.com.ge/about-us/international-affairs.

 Irina Kustova, Regional Electricity Cooperation in the South Caucasus: Cross-Border Trade Opportunities and Regional Regulatory Uncertainties (Brussels: Energy Charter Secretariat Knowledge Centre, 2016), 17, https://www.energycharter.org/fileadmin/ DocumentsMedia/Occasional/Regional_Electricity_Coopera tion_South_Caucasus.pdf.

 “Armenia, Georgia, Iran, Russia Agree on ‘Energy Corridor’”, Azatutyun.am, 13 April 2016, https://www. azatutyun.am/a/27672792.html.

 Alexandr Avanesov, “Experts from Armenia, Iran, Georgia and Russia to Discuss Technical Solutions for the Construction of the North-South Energy Corridor in Tehran”, ArmInfo, 9 April 2019, https://finport.am/full_news.php?id= 37997&lang=3.

 “Iran’s Power Grid to Connect to Russia via Azerbaijan: Energy Min”, MORE News Agency, 6 March 2019, https://en. mehrnews.com/news/143143/Iran-s-power-grid-to-connect-to-Russia-via-Azerbaijan-energy.

 G. V. Lukina and G. Tumannast, “Sostoyanie Elektro­energetiki Mongolii” [The State of Mongolia’s Electricity Sector], Westnik IrGTU 53, no. 6 (2011): 127–29, https:// cyberleninka.ru/article/n/sostoyanie-elektroenergetiki-mongolii/pdf.

 James H. Williams and Navroz K. Dubash, “Asian Elec­tricity Reform in Historical Perspective”, Pacific Affairs 77, no. 3 (2004): 411–36.

 Hugh Collier, Developing Electric Power: Thirty Years of World Bank Experience (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press [for the World Bank], 1984), 19, http:// documents1.worldbank.org/curated/pt/446371468740393127/pdf/multi-page.pdf.

 Nitin Kabeer, “Cross-Border Power Trading Can Be the New Frontier for Solar Growth”, MERCOM India, 19 March 2019, https://mercomindia.com/cross-border-trade-solar-growth/.

 Government of Nepal and Government of India, Agree­ment between the Government of Nepal and the Government of the Republic of India on Electric Power Trade, Cross-border Transmission Interconnection and Grid Connectivity (Kathmandu, 21 October 2014), https://www.moewri.gov.np/storage/listies/May2020/ pta-english-21-oct-2014.pdf.

 Prahlad Rijal, “Nepal, India Agree to Build New Butwal-Gorakhpur Transmission Line with Equal Equity Investment”, The Kathmandu Post (online ed.), 15 October 2019, https:// kathmandupost.com/money/2019/10/15/nepal-india-agree-to-build-new-butwal-gorakhpur-transmission-line-with-equal-equity-investment.

 Millennium Challenge Corporation, “Nepal Compact” (webpage), https://www.mcc.gov/where-we-work/program/ nepal-compact.

 Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, Power and Energy Sector: Multi-Year Public Investment Programme (MYPIP) (Programming Division, Planning Commission, Ministry of Planning, March 2018), https://plandiv.portal. gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/plandiv.portal.gov.bd/publi cations/20cbd3b3_9ef2_4c74_84b0_103813ae36fc/MYPIP-P&E.pdf.

 “Tripura to Supply Additional 60 MW to Bangladesh”, Business Standard (online ed.), 4 March 2017, https://www. business-standard.com/article/news-ians/tripura-to-supply-additional-60-mw-to-bangladesh-117030400306_1.html.

 Prahlad Rijal, “Nepal Likely to Export Power to Bangla­desh Using Indian Grid”, The Kathmandu Post (online ed.), 16 October 2019, https://kathmandupost.com/money/2019/10/ 16/nepal-likely-to-export-power-to-bangladesh-using-indian-grid#:~:text=Prahlad%20Rijal&text=Nepal%2C%20India%20 and%20Bangladesh%20are,power%20through%20India’s% 20transmission%20network.

 Government of India, Ministry of Power, International Cooperation, Interconnection with Neighbouring Countries, https:// powermin.gov.in/en/content/interconnection-neighbouring-countries.

 “India, Bhutan Vow to Strengthen Ties, Ink 10 MoUs”, The Hindu (online ed.), 17 August 2019, https://www.the hindu.com/news/national/pm-modi-inaugurates-mang dechhu-hydroelectric-power-plant-in-bhutan/article 29120270.ece.

 “SAARC Countries Planning to Set Up Common Power Grid”, Financial Express, 12 September 2014, https://www. financialexpress.com/archive/saarc-countries-planning-to-set-up-common-power-grid/1288066/. See also Building Peace through Trade. The Future of India-Pakistan Trade & Economic Rela­tions (Jaipur: CUTS International, 2013), 55.

 Embassy of Japan in Pakistan, “Japan Provides 2.665 Billion Yen for Islamabad and Burhan Transmission Line Re­inforcement Project”, press release, Islamabad, 4 May 2017, https://www.pk.emb-japan.go.jp/itpr_en/00_000159.html.

 China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), “Matiari to Lahore ±660kV HVDC Transmission Line Project” (webpage), http://cpec.gov.pk/project-details/17.

 World Bank, ed., Sri Lanka. Energy InfraSAP: Final Report, Report no. AUS0000803 (Washington, D.C., April 30, 2019), http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/843901561438840086/pdf/Sri-Lanka-Energy-Infrastructure-Sector-Assessment-Program-Executive-Summary.pdf.

 Dipanjan Roy Chaudhury, “India, Myanmar Achieve Concrete Outcomes in Energy, Security, Connectivity and Health Sectors”, The Economic Times (online ed.), 5 October 2020, https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/india-myanmar-achieve-concrete-outcomes-in-energy-security-connectivity-and-health-sectors/articleshow/ 78497185.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium =text&utm_campaign=cppst.

 Government of India, Ministry of Power, Memorandum of Understanding for Establishment of the BIMSTEC Grid Interconnec­tion (BIMSTEC Leaders’ Retreat, 2016), https://powermin.nic. in/en/content/memorandum-understanding-establishment-bimstec-grid-interconnection.

 ADB, Asia Regional Integration Center, “South Asia Regional Initiative for Energy Integration (About)”, https://aric. adb.org/initiative/south-asia-regional-initiative-for-energy-integra tion#:~:text=South%20Asia%20Regional%20 Initiative%2FEnergy’s,India%2C%20Pakistan%2C%20Nepal %2C%20Sri.

 Make in India, “About Us” (webpage), http://www. makeinindia.com/about.

 Government of India, Roadmap 2030 for India-UK Future Relations Launched during India-UK Virtual Summit (4 May 2021), https://www.mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/33838/ Roadmap+2030+for+IndiaUK+future+relations+launched+ during+IndiaUK+Virtual+Summit+4+May+2021.

 European Commission, EU-India Connectivity Partnership (Brussels, 8 May 2021), https://www.consilium.europa.eu/ media/49508/eu-india-connectivity-partnership-8-may-2.pdf.

 ASEAN, Memorandum of Understanding on the ASEAN Power Grid (Singapore, 23 August 2007), https://policy.asia pacificenergy.org/sites/default/files/Memorandum%20of %20Under standing%20on%20the%20ASEAN%20Power %20Grid.pdf.

 Ramesh Ananda Vaidya et al., “Electricity Trade and Cooperation in the BBIN Region: Lessons from Global Ex­perience”, International Journal of Water Resources Development 37, no. 3 (2021): 439–65, https://www.tandfonline.com/ doi/pdf/10.1080/07900627.2019.1566056?needAccess=true.

 “BIMP-EAGA: Turning Remote, Isolated Areas into Economic Engines”, ADB News, 24 June 2019, https://www. adb.org/news/features/bimp-eaga-turning-remote-isolated-areas-economic-engines.

 Tian-tian Feng et al., “Electricity Cooperation Strategy between China and ASEAN Countries under ‘The Belt and Road’”, Energy Strategy Reviews 30 (2020): 1–20, https://www. sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211467X20300651.

 Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), ed., Regional Power Grid Connectivity for Sustain­able Development in North-East Asia: Policies and Strategies (New York: United Nations, December 2020), https://www. unescap.org/resources/regional-power-grid-connectivity-sustainable-development-north-east-asia.

 People’s Republic of China, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Initiative for Belt and Road Partnership on Green Develop­ment”, Communiqué, Beijing, 24 June 2021, https://www. fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/t1886388. shtml.

 Bridge et al., “Geographies of Energy Transition” (see note 8).

 “China’s State Grid Seals Acquisition of Stake in Greek Power Grid”, Reuters (online ed.), 20 June 2017.

 CDP Group, “CDP: 40.9% Stake in CDP Reti Transferred” (see note 114).

 “State Grid Buys Stake in Portugal REN” (see note 113).

 European Commission, “EU Foreign Investment Screening Mechanism Becomes Fully Operational”, press release, Brussels, 9 October 2020, https://ec.europa.eu/ commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_20_1867.

 Grid Development Plan for Electricity, NOVA Principle (online ed.), https://www.netzentwicklungsplan.de/de/ node/489#:~:text=NOVA%20stands%20for%C3%BCr%20grid%20optimization%2C%20%2Dverst%C3%A4rkung,before %20the%20expansion%20of%20the%20electricity%20grids.

 “Alternating Current and Direct Current”, Scientific Committees (online ed.), https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_ committees/opinions_layman/en/electromagnetic-fields/ glossary/abc/alternating-current.htm.

 “What Is the Difference between AC and DC Power?” Power & Beyond (online ed.), https://www.power-and-beyond. com/whats-the-difference-between-ac-and-dc-power-a-915187/.

 “Black Start”, NREL (online ed.), https://www.nrel.gov/ grid/black-start.html.

 “AC vs DC Coupling: What Is It?” Noise Engineering, https://noiseengineering.us/blogs/loquelic-literitas-the-blog/ ac-vs-dc-coupling-what-is-it.

 “Alternating Current and Direct Current”, Scientific Committees, https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/ opinions_layman/en/electromagnetic-fields/glossary/abc/ alternating-current.htm.

 “What Is HVDC Transmission? Electrical Deck, https:// www.electricaldeck.com/2021/08/what-is-hvdc-transmission. html.

 “Technical Aspects of Grid Interconnection”, Energypedia, https://energypedia.info/wiki/Technical_Aspects_of_Grid_ Interconnection.

 “Kirchhoff’s Current Law”, Electronic Tutorials, https:// www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/kirchhoffs-current-law.html.

 Ibid.

 European Commission, “Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/1485 of 2 August 2017 Establishing a Guideline on Electricity Transmission System Operation”, Official Journal of the European Union, no. L 220 (25 August 2017): 1–120 (5), https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX %3A32017R1485&qid=1633011636985.

 “What Are Network Codes?” ENTSO-E, https://www. entsoe.eu/network_codes/.

 European Commission, Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/1485 (see note 46).

 Natasha Luther-Jones, “Corporate Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs): What Are They?” DLA Piper (website), https://www.dlapiper.com/en/us/insights/publications/2019/ 11/what-are-corporate-power-purchase-agreements-ppa/.

 Reactive Power, Electronis-Tutorial (online), https://www. electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/reactive-power.html.

 “How Rectifiers Work – Types of Rectifiers & Their Use, Arrow Electronics”, Arrow, 24 September 2018, https:// www.arrow.com/en/research-and-events/articles/how-rectifiers-work-types-of-rectifiers-and-their-uses.

 German Federal Network Agency, “Network and System Security” (webpage), https://www.bundesnetzagentur.de/EN/ Areas/Energy/Companies/SecurityOfSupply/NetworkSecurity/ start.html.

 “What Is a Substation?” El Pro CUS, https://www. elprocus.com/what-is-a-substation-definition-types-of-substations/.

 A. Mazloomzadeh, V. Salehi and O. Mohammed, “Soft Synchronization of Dispersed Generators to Micro Grids for Smart Grid Applications” (Washington, D.C.: Institute of Electrical and Electronical Engineers [IEEE], IEEE PES Inno­vative Smart Grid Technologies [ISGT], 2012), 1–7, doi: 10.1109/ISGT.2012.6175812.

 See Zachmann and Feldhaus, Synchronising Ukraine’s and Europe’s Electricity Grids (see note 102), 8.